What is Ovarian Cancer?

ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer, also known as cancer of the ovaries, is a type of cancer that affects females. It is the name for a number of cancers that can develop in the ovaries, the organs that store eggs and are connected to the womb.^[1][2][3][4]

While it is not the most common type of cancer in women, ovarian cancer has lower survival rates than other female reproductive system cancers. This may be because symptoms of ovarian cancer are not always obvious, leading to late diagnosis. The prognosis (outlook) tends to be better the earlier the cancer is detected.^[1][4][5]

This type of cancer mostly affects women over 50, and the average age at diagnosis is 63.[2][3] Every year, more than 20 000 women in the United States are diagnosed with ovarian cancer; in Europe, this number is closer to 65 000.^[1][4]

Treatment depends on the type of ovarian cancer and stage of diagnosis but typically involves a combination of surgery and chemotherapy.[1][6][7] Recovery rates tend to be better in cases where the cancer is diagnosed early and where the woman is younger than 40.^[1][5]

Types of ovarian cancer

There are several different types of ovarian cancer. These include:^[1][8][9]

Epithelial ovarian tumors

These comprise the vast majority, about 90 percent of malignant ovarian cancers. Epithelial ovarian tumors develop in the epithelium, the thin layer of tissue covering the ovaries. These most often occur in women over the age of 50. There are several subtypes of epithelial tumors.

Not all epithelial tumors are cancerous (called malignant or carcinomas). Many epithelial tumors are benign, having less of a tendency to spread.

Some epithelial tumors are called borderline ovarian tumors or tumors of low malignant potential (LMP tumors); these fall between benign and malignant. They tend to affect younger women and have a better prognosis (outlook).

Germ cell tumors

Cancerous germ cell tumors account for only a small percentage of malignant ovarian cancers.^[10] They are most common in women under 35 and tend to have a good prognosis. The tumors, of which there are six different types, develop from the cells that form eggs. They are typically detected as a painful abdominal mass that gets bigger quickly.

Stromal tumors

Cancerous stromal tumors also account for just a small percentage of ovarian cancers. Stromal tumors form in the connective tissue cells, which keep the ovary intact and produce female hormones. Most cases are diagnosed early and tend to have a good prognosis.

Stromal tumors, of which there are several different types, can produce sex hormones, causing symptoms that include:

• Unexplained vaginal bleeding
• Precocious breast development in young girls

And, in some cases:

• An absence of menstruation
• Increased growth of facial and body hair

Small cell carcinoma of the ovary

This is a rare type of cancerous tumor that mostly affects young women. There are several different kinds of small cell carcinoma of the ovary.

Metastatic tumors

Sometimes, other types of cancer spread from elsewhere in the body to the ovaries. Examples include cancer of the breast, uterus, cervix, and gastrointestinal tract. These types of tumors are called metastatic tumors.

Symptoms of ovarian cancer

Early signs and symptoms of ovarian cancer may be vague and similar to those found in many gastrointestinal conditions, such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). This can make cancer difficult to recognize.^[1][11]

However, symptoms caused by ovarian cancer are typically persistent and represent a change from normal. Without delay, if a person experiences any unexplained symptoms, they should consult a healthcare practitioner, preferably a gynecologist, i.e., a doctor specializing in the female reproductive system.^[12][13]

Common symptoms of ovarian cancer include:^[1][11][12]

• Bloating and swelling of the abdomen (stomach)
• Pain or discomfort in the abdominal (stomach) or pelvic area
• Difficulty eating or feeling full soon after beginning a meal
• Needing to urinate more urgently or more often than usual

Many people with ovarian cancer experience non-specific gastrointestinal symptoms for at least three months.^[14]

Less common symptoms of ovarian cancer include:^{[1][11][12][13][14]}

• Indigestion (dyspepsia)
• Feeling full quickly (early satiety)
• Swelling of the abdomen (belly)
• Increase in circumference of the abdomen
• Nausea
• Diarrhea
• Constipation
• Tiredness
• Back pain
• Pain during sex
• Unexplained vaginal bleeding or discharge^[15]
• Menstrual changes
• Unexplained weight loss

If any symptoms are worrying you, Please check with your Doctor. Find my Doctor for a free assessment.

Symptoms of granulosa cell tumors

A granulosa cell tumor (GCT), a type of stromal tumor of the ovary, may have signs and symptoms different from the above.^[12] These tumors typically present as large masses, which may be palpable.^[16]

Abdominal pain or discomfort and unexplained bleeding from the vagina in older people are among the more common symptoms of GCTs. However, symptoms differ according to the life stage of a person and may include the following:^{[12][17][18][9]}

In postmenopausal people (those who have experienced menopause): Vaginal discharge, breast tenderness, cancer of the uterus, and, in rare cases, development of male traits like male-pattern hair growth or facial hair caused by elevated testosterone levels.

In premenopausal people (those who have not experienced menopause): Irregular, unusually heavy or absent periods, abdominal swelling (increased girth) – often with a mass that can be felt and, in some cases, development of male traits like male-pattern hair growth or facial hair caused by elevated testosterone levels.

In prepubescent children (those who have not yet experienced puberty): Early puberty and, in some cases, development of male traits like male-pattern hair growth or facial hair.

In most cases, GCTs are detected early, and the prognosis is good.^[17]

Causes of ovarian cancer

The causes of ovarian cancer are not known. However, certain factors are thought to increase a person’s risk of developing the condition.

Ovarian cancer risk factors

Factors that may increase the risk of developing ovarian cancer include:^{[2][19][20][21][22][23]}

• Being over 50
• Having a close relative who has had ovarian cancer or cancer of the breast, colon, uterus or rectum
• Having an inherited mutation in breast cancer gene 1 (BRCA1) or breast cancer gene 2 (BRCA2) – this is particularly prevalent among Eastern European females and females of Ashkenazi Jewish descent
• Carrying genes linked to hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC), known as Lynch syndrome
• Endometriosis
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)
• Infertility
• Intrauterine devices
• Use of tobacco products

People over the age of 50 and those who have a strong family history of ovarian (or breast) cancer, a BRCA mutation, or Lynch syndrome may be encouraged to undergo screening for ovarian cancer.^[19][24]

Diagnosis of ovarian cancer

As the first step, a doctor will need to confirm that the symptoms are not being caused by any other conditions, including uterine fibroids, endometriosis, and gastrointestinal disorders.^[1]

A doctor will typically take the person’s medical history and perform a physical examination, including a pelvic exam. If they suspect that ovarian cancer may be present, they will order an ultrasound, computed tomography (CT) scan, or a magnetic resonance imaging scan (MRI) to investigate.^[12][9]

The Doctor will also order blood tests to check, among other things, the levels of a substance called cancer antigen (CA) 125. This is a tumor marker often found at elevated levels in people with ovarian cancer. However, this test is not reliable; certain other conditions, such as endometriosis, can cause the levels to be high, and in some cases of ovarian cancer, the levels are not elevated.^[12][9]

If the combined tests suggest that ovarian cancer may be present, it will usually be necessary to undergo surgery to confirm the diagnosis. In a few cases, a non-surgical biopsy, where the Doctor takes a sample of tissue or fluid with a needle, may be performed.^[12][9]

A pap test, which is used to screen for cervical cancer, usually cannot detect ovarian cancer. Read more about Cervical Cancer.

Surgery

Surgery aims to confirm the diagnosis, define the extent of disease and remove all visible tumors. If ovarian cancer is suspected, the Doctor may recommend an exploratory laparotomy or sometimes an exploratory laparoscopy, depending on the person’s age and size of the identified mass, among other factors.^[12][9]

For the highest probability of success, a gynecologic oncologist, i.e., a medical professional specializing in managing cancers of the female reproductive system, should be asked to perform the surgery.^[12][9]

Exploratory laparotomy

The surgeon will typically make a long incision in the abdomen to check the area for any signs of cancer. Where possible, they may take samples of tissue and fluid, which a specialist will closely examine while the person is in the operating room. If cancer is strongly suspected or confirmed, the surgeon will remove as much of the cancerous tissue as possible during the same procedure. Called debulking, this may involve removing the uterus, fallopian tubes, and one or both ovaries, as well as nearby tissue and organs, if cancer has spread.^[12][9]

Suppose a person is not a good candidate for surgery to remove the bulk of the tumor tissue. In that case, a doctor may recommend that they undergo a course of initial chemotherapy to reduce the tumor size, followed by surgery to remove tumor tissue and further chemotherapy.^[25]

Exploratory laparoscopy

In some cases, for instance, when the person is young, and the likelihood of cancer small or a laparotomy cannot be performed, this less-invasive type of surgery may be recommended. The surgeon will typically make a small incision in the abdomen to insert a laparoscope – a flexible tube with a camera on end – and use this to check for cancer. Tissue and fluid samples can also be taken and the ovaries removed, if necessary, during the procedure.^[12][9][26]

Read more about laparoscopy, also known as keyhole surgery »

Staging

Based on the findings of the exploratory procedure, the ovarian cancer will be classified as one of four stages, depending on how advanced it is:^[1][27]

Stage I ovarian cancer: The cancer is at an early stage. Tumors are found in one or both ovaries and, depending on the advancement of the condition, the ovary or ovaries may have ruptured, there may be tumors on the surface of the ovaries, or the cancer cells may have started spreading within the pelvic area.

Stage II ovarian cancer: The cancer is still at an early stage, but has spread to other organs in the pelvis, such as the uterus or fallopian tubes. It may also have started spreading outside the pelvic area.

Stage III ovarian cancer: The cancer is at a more advanced stage. While it may extend to the capsule of the liver and spleen, it has not spread beyond the abdomen and abdominal lymph nodes.

Stage IV ovarian cancer: The cancer is at a very advanced stage, having spread into other areas such as the liver or lungs.

Staging the cancer helps doctors recommend the most appropriate treatment programme. Generally speaking, the earlier the stage of diagnosis, the higher the likelihood of recovery.

Ovarian cysts

Sometimes, a medical check-up will reveal an ovarian cyst – a fluid-filled sac either inside or on the ovary. Ovarian cysts are common in females of all age groups, and are usually harmless (benign). They may cause pain and pressure in the pelvic area, but many people experience no symptoms at all. The cysts do not usually cause irregular periods or vaginal bleeding.^[9][28]

The majority of ovarian cysts typically develop during ovulation (the process where an egg is released from the ovary), and disappear on their own within a month or two, without any treatment.^[9][28]
However, a very small number of ovarian cysts may be cancerous. If a cyst is particularly large, does not go away, has developed in a pre-pubescent or postmenopausal person, or if there is any other cause for concern, a doctor may recommend further scans, blood tests and sometimes surgery to investigate.^[9][28]

Ovarian cancer treatment

Following surgery, during which as much of the cancer as possible will have been removed, further treatment may be recommended. The treatment approach will depend on the stage and type of the ovarian cancer, but, except in the very early stages, will typically involve chemotherapy.^[1][29]

In some cases of stage III or stage IV ovarian cancer, doctors may recommend a course of chemotherapy prior to surgery. This is called neoadjuvant chemotherapy.^[29]

Chemotherapy for ovarian cancer

Chemotherapy can improve the likelihood of recovery from ovarian cancer. It typically involves the administering of drugs called paclitaxel and carboplatin through the veins, a procedure that is done approximately once every three weeks for up to six cycles. Sometimes, other drugs may be used. The treatment may also be administered directly into the abdominal cavity; this is called intraperitoneal chemotherapy.^[1][3]

The general aims of chemotherapy treatment are to destroy any remaining tumor tissue and increase the likelihood of recovery.^[3]

Chemotherapy can sometimes have unpleasant side effects, such as hair loss, nausea and vomiting, fatigue, and pain. A doctor will be able to advise on how best to manage the side effects, should they occur.^[3][29] For more information, see this resource on chemotherapy side effects.

Radiation therapy

Also known as radiotherapy, this type of treatment uses X-rays to destroy cancer cells. In the treatment of ovarian cancer, radiation therapy is typically only used in cases where a person does not respond to chemotherapy or where the cancer is very advanced, and it is no longer possible to administer chemotherapy.^[29]

Alternative treatments

While a number of other treatments for ovarian cancer are being explored, further research is needed before they can be recommended.^[1] If a person is interested in alternatives to chemotherapy, it is advisable to consult with their healthcare team.

It may be possible to participate in a clinical drug trial in some cases. More information about trials in the USA can be found on the following websites:^[3]

• National Cancer Institute
• ClinicalTrials.gov

A doctor will be able to advise whether drug trials might be viable options for a particular person.

Recurrent ovarian cancer

After treatment, a person will typically be asked to have follow-up physical examinations, scans, and blood tests regularly over a period of at least five years. A doctor will be able to advise on which are necessary and how frequently these should be done.^[3]

If ovarian cancer recurs, the first indications may include abdominal (belly) pain, bloating, back pain, and, sometimes, a palpable mass in the pelvis. Blood tests may show elevated levels of tumor markers.^[3]

If any signs of ovarian cancer have returned, further surgery and/or treatment with chemotherapy (second-line chemotherapy) may be recommended.^[3]

Prevention of ovarian cancer

While it may not be possible to prevent ovarian cancer, taking certain steps may reduce the risk of developing the disease. In general, these include:^[30]

• Avoiding the use of tobacco products
• Eating a balanced diet and being physically active
• Avoiding exposure to asbestos

It is also thought that the following may lower one’s risk of developing ovarian cancer:^[30][31]

• Taking an oral contraceptive (birth control) pill
• Avoiding estrogen-only hormone replacement therapy where possible
• Having surgery to remove the ovaries
• Having surgery to block or cut the fallopian tubes (tying one’s tubes)
• Having a hysterectomy (surgery to remove the uterus, or womb)
• Breastfeeding

Not all of the above will be necessary or suitable for everyone.

Having a baby may also reduce the risk of ovarian cancer in people without a strong family or genetic risk.^[30] However, this should never be the principal reason for starting a family.

People at high risk of ovarian cancer are encouraged to discuss the most suitable approach with their medical practitioner. Screening and other preventative strategies may be recommended.^[30]

Screening for ovarian cancer

People, who are considered to have a higher than average risk of developing ovarian cancer, may be advised to undergo regular screening for the disease. This may include blood tests and pelvic ultrasound scans.^[19]

If a person has a strong family history of certain cancers, a known mutation in BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 genes, which can be confirmed through genetic testing, or if a person has Lynch syndrome, regular screening may be recommended from their thirties or another age determined as appropriate by a medical practitioner.^[19]

While those who are not considered to be at high risk of developing ovarian cancer may not require regular screening, they are encouraged to go for regular gynecological check-ups and to discuss any concerns with a doctor.^[19]

Ovarian cancer FAQs

Other names for ovarian cancer

• Neoplasm ovary
• Ovarian neoplasms
• Ovarian carcinoma

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1. Patient. “Ovarian Cancer.” December 2, 2016. Accessed January 22, 2018. ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩

2. NHS Choices. “Ovarian cancer.” January 30, 2017. Accessed January 23, 2018. ↩ ↩ ↩

3. UpToDate. “Patient education: First-line medical treatment of epithelial ovarian cancer (Beyond the Basics).” May 4, 2017. Accessed January 23, 2018. ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩

4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Basic Information About Ovarian Cancer.” February 13, 2017. Accessed January 23, 2018. ↩ ↩ ↩

5. Ovarian Cancer Research Fund Alliance. “Statistics.” Accessed January 23, 2018. ↩ ↩

6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “How Is Ovarian Cancer Treated?” February 13, 2017. Accessed January 24, 2018. ↩

7. Ovarian Cancer Research Fund Alliance. “Treatment.” Accessed January 24, 2018. ↩

8. Ovarian Cancer Research Fund Alliance. “Types of Ovarian Cancer.” Accessed February 21, 2018. ↩

9. American Cancer Society. “What Is Ovarian Cancer?” February 4, 2016. Accessed February 21, 2018. ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩

10. UpToDate. “Ovarian germ cell tumors: Pathology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis.” November 30, 2017. Accessed April 12, 2018. ↩

11. NHS Choices. “Ovarian cancer: Symptoms.” January 30, 2017. Accessed February 3, 2018. ↩ ↩ ↩

12. Ovarian Cancer Research Fund Alliance. “Symptoms and Detection.” Accessed February 3, 2018. ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩

13. American Cancer Society. “Signs and Symptoms of Ovarian Cancer.” February 4, 2016. Accessed February 3, 2018. ↩ ↩

14. BMJ Best Practice. “Ovarian cancer: History and exam.” Accessed April 12, 2018. ↩ ↩

15. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “What Are the Symptoms of Ovarian Cancer?” February 9, 2017. Accessed February 3, 2018. ↩

16. UpToDate. “Sex cord-stromal tumors of the ovary: Granulosa-stromal cell tumors.” July 6, 2017. Accessed April 12, 2018. ↩

17. North American Journal of Medical Sciences. Ovarian Granulosa Cell Tumor: Clinical Features, Treatment, Outcome, and Prognostic Factors.” March, 2014. Accessed February 3, 2018. ↩ ↩

18. Medscape. “Granulosa-Theca Cell Tumors Clinical Presentation.” January 15, 2015. Accessed February 3, 2018. ↩

19. UpToDate. “Patient education: Ovarian cancer screening (Beyond the Basics).” April 22, 2016. Accessed February 17, 2018. ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩

20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “What Are the Risk Factors for Ovarian Cancer?” February 9, 2017. Accessed February 17, 2018. ↩

21. Ovarian Cancer Research Fund Alliance. “Risk factors.” Accessed February 17, 2018. ↩

22. American Cancer Society. “What Are the Risk Factors for Ovarian Cancer?” February 4, 2016. Accessed March 9, 2018. ↩

23. UpToDate. “Risk factors for ovarian cancer.” Accessed April 12, 2018. ↩

24. ROCA Test. “ROCA FAQs.” Accessed February 17, 2018. ↩

25. Medscape. “Ovarian Cancer Treatment & Management.” April 12, 2018. Accessed April 13, 2018. ↩

26. Cancer Research UK. “Laparoscopy.” March 31, 2016. Accessed March 7, 2018. ↩

27. UpToDate. “Patient education: Ovarian cancer diagnosis and staging (Beyond the Basics).” July 10, 2017. Accessed March 7, 2018. ↩

28. UpToDate. “Patient education: Ovarian cysts (Beyond the Basics).” September 5, 2017. Accessed March 9, 2018. ↩ ↩ ↩

29. Cancer Council Victoria. “Treatment for ovarian cancer.” April 1, 2016. Accessed March 20, 2018. ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩

30. Canadian Cancer Society. “Reducing your risk for ovarian cancer.” Accessed March 20, 2018. ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩

31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “What Can I Do to Reduce My Risk of Ovarian Cancer?” February 9, 2017. Accessed March 20, 2018. ↩

32. American Cancer Society. “Talcum Powder and Cancer.” November 13, 2017. Accessed January 23, 2018. ↩

33. Ovarian Cancer Research Fund Alliance. “Frequently Asked Questions.” Accessed January 23, 2018. ↩

34. Ovarian Cancer Research Fund Alliance. “Recurrence.” Accessed January 22, 2018. ↩

**What is Ovarian Cancer?**



**Q: What is​ ovarian cancer?**



**A:** Ovarian cancer is a type ⁢of malignancy that originates in the ovaries,‍ two small ⁤organs located on either side of the ‌uterus. ‍These organs produce hormones and release eggs​ for reproduction.



**Q: What are the risk factors for ovarian cancer?**



**A:** Risk factors for ovarian cancer include:



* **Age:** The risk of ovarian cancer ⁣increases‌ with age.

* **Family history:** Having a close relative (mother, sister, daughter) with ovarian cancer⁢ increases one’s risk.

* **BRCA1/BRCA2 gene ​mutations:** These genetic mutations significantly increase the risk​ of ovarian⁢ and⁤ other cancers.

* **Inherited ⁣ovarian cancer syndromes:** Certain syndromes, such as Lynch syndrome​ and⁤ familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), can‍ increase the risk⁣ of ovarian ⁤cancer.

* **Lifestyle factors:** Certain lifestyle choices, such as smoking, obesity, ​and⁢ a sedentary ⁣lifestyle, may slightly increase the risk of ​ovarian ​cancer.



**Q: What are the symptoms of ​ovarian cancer?**



**A:** ⁢Early-stage ⁣ovarian cancer often ‌has ⁢no noticeable symptoms. As the cancer ⁣progresses, symptoms may include:



* Abdominal swelling or bloating

* Frequent‍ urinary⁢ urgency or difficulty

* Pelvic ⁢pain or discomfort

* Feeling full ​quickly or⁢ losing weight without trying

* ⁣Back ​pain

* Fatigue or other ⁣nonspecific symptoms



**Q: How is‌ ovarian cancer diagnosed?**



**A:**​ Diagnosis of ​ovarian cancer may involve:



* **Pelvic exam:** A manual examination of the pelvic organs.

* ⁣**Transvaginal‌ ultrasound (TVUS):** A probe is inserted into the vagina⁢ to create images of the ovaries and surrounding structures.

* **Blood tests:** ​To check for elevated CA-125 levels,‌ a protein marker associated ⁢with ovarian cancer.

*‌ **Biopsy:** Removing​ a‍ sample of tissue ⁤from the‌ ovary for examination under a microscope.



**Q: How is ovarian cancer treated?**



**A:** Treatment for ovarian cancer⁢ typically combines‌ one or more of the⁣ following:



* **Surgery:** Removal of the affected ovary(ies) and fallopian⁣ tubes (salpingo-oophorectomy)

* **Chemotherapy:** Systemic therapy using drugs to kill cancer cells

* **Radiation therapy:** Using X-rays or other high-energy beams to target‍ and destroy cancer cells

* **Targeted therapy:** Medications ⁤that specifically target molecular markers‍ on ⁢cancer cells



**Q: ⁤What is‌ the ⁤prognosis for ovarian​ cancer?**



**A:**​ The prognosis for ovarian cancer depends on ​factors such ⁣as the stage at diagnosis, the type of⁤ tumor, and the​ patient’s⁤ individual characteristics. With early detection and treatment, the 5-year survival rate is often high. However, ovarian cancer‌ can be difficult to diagnose early, so ‌the overall survival rate ‍is lower than that of many other types of cancer.



**Q: How can I reduce my risk‍ of ovarian cancer?**



**A:** While not all risk factors ⁣for ovarian cancer are modifiable, certain⁢ measures may potentially reduce risk:



*​ **Genetic testing:** Consider genetic testing ⁤for ⁢BRCA1/BRCA2 mutations to determine if you have an increased risk.

* **Hormonal contraception:** Long-term use of hormonal ‌contraceptives, such as ‍birth control pills, has been ⁣shown to decrease the risk of ovarian cancer.

* **Breastfeeding:** Some research suggests that breastfeeding may slightly reduce the risk⁤ of ovarian cancer.

* **Ovarian ⁣cancer screening:**‍ Screening is not routinely recommended, ‍but it ⁣may ‍be an option for women with a high risk.